Learning
Introduction
Meaning of Learning
The knowledge we acquire, the language we speak, the habits, attitudes
and skills developed in us are all due to learning.
Psychologists
define learning as “a relatively permanent change in behaviour, which
occurs as a result of activity, training, practice or experience” This
definition of learning has three important elements
§ Learning results in change in behaviour
§ It is a change that takes place through practice or experience.
§ Before it can be called learning, the change must be relatively permanent
Learning is often
defined as a relatively lasting change in behavior that is the result of
experience. Learning became a major focus of study in psychology during the
early part of the twentieth century as behaviorism rose to become a
major school of thought. Today, learning remains an important concept in
numerous areas of psychology, including cognitive, educational, social
and developmental psychology.
How
Does Learning Occur?
Learning can happen
in a wide variety of ways. To explain how and when learning occurs, a number of
different psychological theories have been proposed.
Learning Through Classical Conditioning
Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov discovered one method of learning during his experiments
on the digestive systems of dogs. He noted that the dogs would naturally
salivate at the sight of food, but that eventually the dogs also began to
salivate whenever they spotted the experimenter’s white lab coat. Later
experiments involve pairing the sight of food with the sound of a bell tone.
Characteristics of
Learning
The following are
the important characteristics of learning:
Learning is
universal. All living beings learn.
Learning is
continuous; it is a perpetual activity that takes place from ‘womb to tomb’
Learning results in
improved performance.
Connections
Learning Curve
The measured results of growth in learning, especially of
motor skills can be represented graphically by means of a learning curve.
Learning can be measured in many different ways.
Usually we look for either an increase in the number of
correct responses or a decrease in the number of errors when we want to know
how much learning has taken place or how fast it has occurred. When we
plot these measures on a graph, we have a learning curve.
In most cases, whether we are drawing a graph of errors or
of correct responses, the steepest part of the curve will be at the left.
This is because the greatest amount of improvement comes early in the learning
process. Then, as the increases in learning on each trial become smaller
and smaller the curve will gradually level off.
Learning curves are generally positively accelerated i.e.
they show continued improvement in learning with persistent practice.
Positively accelerated learning curves exhibit certain general characteristics.
In the initial stage (OA) the gain is slow and
gradual. This may be due to the fact that the individual often does not
possess sufficient practice in all the basic skills needed for the learning
activity undertaken.
After the initial slow rate, there will be a ‘spurt’ (AB)
in learning, due to familiarity with the task. It is followed by
‘plateau’ (BC) which is a period of apparently no progress in learning in spite
of continued practice. If the learner persists in his learning
activity, he makes steady progress further (CD) and reaches the maximum
limit or zenith (DE) which is different for different individuals, always
determined by the physiological limits of the individual. The portion EF
of the curve represents the ‘decline’ in the performance due to ‘aging’
Factors
Factors that influence
‘Insight’
1. Intelligence (capacity) : The more intelligent the organism is, the
greater will be the insight
2. Experience : Past experience helps insightful solution
3. Presentation of the problem.
4. Initial effort : Initial efforts also develop insight. It may be called
trial and error effort made by the learner.
Steps involved in
insightful learning
The following are the stages involved in insightful learning
1. Preparation (sensing or survey of the problem)
2. Incubation (period of apparently no action)
3. Insight or illumination (the solution appears as a flash)
4. Evaluation (Verifying utility of the solution)
Gestalt
Gestalt theory of
perception
According to the Gestalt psychologists — notably Max
Wertheimer (1880-1943), Wolfgang Khler (1887-1967) and Kurt Koffka (1886-1941)
— certain features in visual perception are universal. In semiotic terms, these
universal features can be thought of as a perceptual code.
Gestalt is a sensual theory: What we
see is a result of light and dark objects, edges and contours, that we form
into a whole image. Sensual theories are of a lower order of thinking
than perceptual theories, such as semiotics, that are concerned
with the meaning we attach to what we see.
Gestalt (the German word means form or whole)
is a theory that the brain operates holistically, with self-organizing
tendencies. The statement, The whole is different from the sum of
its parts sums up the way we recognize figures and whole forms
instead of just a collection of simple lines, curves and shapes.
Face or vase? When we see
an image, according to Gestalt theory, we separate a dominant shape, or figure with
a definite contour, from the background, or ground. This
image is a version of the ambiguous figure devised by Danish psychologist Edgar
Rubin.
Kohler’s
Kohlers’s
Insight Theory
The learning theory named as “Learning by Insight” is the contribution
of Gestalt Psychologists, Gestalt Psychology began with the work of German
Psychologists who were studying the nature of perception. Wertheimer is
generally considered to be the Gestalt Psychology’s founding father.
Wertheimer, Kohler, Koffka and Lewin-all four of these men, originally German,
eventually settled in America-are the leaders of what is historically Gestalt
Psychology.
“Gestalt” is a German noun for which there is no English word equivalent
so the term was carried over in English Psychological literature. The
nearest English translation of Gestalt is ‘configuration’ or more simply ‘an
organized whole’ in contrast to be collection or parts. Gestalt
psychologists consider the process of learning as a gestalt-an organized
whole. A thing cannot be understood by the study of its constituent parts
but only by the study of it as a totality-is a basic idea behind this theory.
Gestalt Psychology used the term ‘insight’ to describe the perception of
the whole situation by the learner and of his intelligence in responding to the
proper relationships. Kohler, first of all, used this term (insight) to
describe the learning of his apes. Kohler conducted many experiments on
chimpanzees and brought out a book. ‘Mentality of Apes’ in 1925 which was
the result of his experiments, conducted during the period 1913-17 on the
canary Island. These experiments, show learning by insight. Some of
them are given below :
§ In one experiment, Kohler put a chimpanzee Sultan inside a cage and a
banana was hung from the roof of the cage. A box was placed inside the
cage. The chimpanzee tried to reach the banana by jumping but could not
succeed. Suddenly, he got an idea and used the stick as a jumping
platform by placing it just below the hanging banana.
§ In other experiment, Kohler made this problem more difficult. Now it
required two or three boxes to reach the banana. Moreover, the placing of
one box over the other required different specific arrangements.
§ In a morecomplicated experiment, banana was placed outside the cage of
the chimpanzee. Two sticks, one larger than the other, were placed inside
the cage. One was hollow at one end so that the other stick could be
thrust into it to form a longer stick. The banana was so kept that it
could not be picked up by one of the sticks. The chimpanzee first tried these
sticks one after the other but failed. Suddenly, he got a bright
idea. The animal joined the two sticks together and reached the
banana. In these experiments, Kohler used many different
chimpanzees. Sultan, who was the most intelligent of Kohler’s
chimpanzees, could solve all the problems. Other chimpanzees could solve
the problems only when they saw Sultan solving them.
With such
experiments, Kohler concluded that in the solution of problems, his apes did
not resort to blind trial and error mechanism. They solved their problems
intelligently. Kohler used the term ‘Insight’ to describe the learning of
his apes.
Insight involves
the following criteria
§ The situation as a whole is perceived by the learner.
§ The learner tries to see and judge the relationship between various
factors involved in the situation.
§ As a result, the learner is helped in the sudden grasping of the
solution of the problem.
Therefore, learning
according to them is re-structuring the field of perception through insight.
As a whole, insight depends upon the following factors.
§ Experience
§ Intelligence
§ Learning Situation
§ Initial Efforts
§ Repetition and Generalization
Educational Implication of the Theory of Insightful Learning :
This theory brings
the following important facts into limelight :
1. The whole is greater than the parts and, therefore, the situation should
be viewed as a whole.
2. The use of blind fumbling and mechanical trial and error should be
minimized. The learner should try to see relevant relationships and act
intelligently.
3. The purpose or motive plays the central role in the learning process.
Based on the appeal
of this theory, teachers are required to pay attention to the following
aspects.
1. Subject matter (learning material) should be presented in Gestalt form.
While teaching the topic, parts of a flowering plant or flower, it should not
be started by presenting the different parts. Initially the plant or flower as
a whole should be presented before them and later on the parts should be
emphasized.
2. The greater contribution of the insight theory of learning is that it
has made learning an intelligent task requiring mental abilities instead of
blind fumbling and automatic responses to specific stimuli.
Learning Curve
The measured
results of growth in learning, especially of motor skills can be represented
graphically by means of a learning curve.
Learning can be
measured in many different ways.
Usually we look for
either an increase in the number of correct responses or a decrease in the
number of errors when we want to know how much learning has taken place or how
fast it has occurred. When we plot these measures on a graph, we have a
learning curve.
In most cases,
whether we are drawing a graph of errors or of correct responses, the steepest
part of the curve will be at the left. This is because the greatest
amount of improvement comes early in the learning process. Then, as the
increases in learning on each trial become smaller and smaller the curve will
gradually level off.
Learning curves are
generally positively accelerated i.e. they show continued improvement in
learning with persistent practice. Positively accelerated learning curves
exhibit certain general characteristics.
In the initial
stage (OA) the gain is slow and gradual. This may be due to the fact that
the individual often does not possess sufficient practice in all the basic
skills needed for the learning activity undertaken.
After the initial
slow rate, there will be a ‘spurt’ (AB) in learning, due to familiarity with
the task. It is followed by ‘plateau’ (BC) which is a period of
apparently no progress in learning in spite of continued practice. If the
learner persists in his learning activity, he makes steady progress
further (CD) and reaches the maximum limit or zenith (DE) which is different
for different individuals, always determined by the physiological limits of the
individual. The portion EF of the curve represents the ‘decline’ in the
performance due to ‘aging’
LEARNING BY CONNECTIONS
OR ASSOCIATIONS
The doctrine of associationism or knowing the world by forming
connections can be traced back to Aristotle. According to him, every
experience in life is learned and remembered due to the laws of association –
the law of repetition, law of contiguity and the law of similarity.
Philosophers like Locke and Hume added to these laws, the principles of
‘reward’ and ‘punishment’.
The first
psychological research concerned with associative learning was conducted by
E.L. Thorndike on animals. Later Ivan Pavlov’s classical
conditioning and Skinner’s operant conditioning became crutches on which the
connection model stood. Other theories like Guthrie’s contiguity theory,
Hull’s drive reduction theory and Lorenz’s imprinting theory, though less
popular, gave a big boost to this model because of their potentialities for
application. The above theories are explained in the following pages.
LEARNING THEORIES
1. STIMULUS
RESPONSE THEORIES
* Pavlov’s
Classical Conditioning Theory
(Dog Experiment)
* Thorndike’s Laws
of Learning
(Puzzle box
Experiment)
* Skinner’s Operant
Conditioning
(Skinnner Box
Experiment)
2. FIELD
THEORIES
* Kholer’s
Insight Learning Theory
(Chimpanzee
Experiment)
* Gestalt Theory
of Insight Learning
(Configuration or
pattern)
Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Theory
Russian
physiologist Ian Pavlov, during his experimental work on dog’s digestive
process, accidentally noticed the secretion of saliva in the dog on the sight
of food or hearing the footsteps of the caretaker.
Conditioning can be
defined as “a process in which a neutral stimulus which is not associated with
any specific natural response, on pairing with a natural stimulus, acquires all
the characteristics of natural stimulus” For example, if food is
presented, saliva flows. Food is the ‘natural stimulus’ (or unconditioned
stimulus-U.C.S.) that can elicit the ‘natural response’ (or unconditioned
response-U.C.R.) ‘salivating’. The sound of a bell which is a neutral
stimulus, not associated with any specific response originally, when paired
with food a number of times, acquires the characteristics of food and starts
eliciting the response of salivation, even when presented alone. Now we
refer the bell sound as ‘conditioned stimulus’ (C.S.) and ‘salivation’ as
‘conditioned response’(C.R.). ‘The classical conditioning’ of Pavlov is
also called ‘stimulus substitution’ because we substitute a neutral stimulus,
through the process of ‘contiguity’ (occurrence of two events in quick
succession). Symbolic representation of classical conditioning is given
below:
STAGE I (Before
conditioning)
UCS :UCR
(Food) (natural
stimulus) (Salivation)
CS : No specific or
(Ringing of the
Bell)
unique
response
STAGE II (Process
of conditioning)
CS +
UCS : CR
(Bell sound + Food) (Salivation)
STAGE III (After
conditioning)
CS : CR
(Bell
sound) (Salivation)
Conditioning
appears to be the simplest type of learning and the basis for further and more
complex types of learning. Most of the animal learning’s could be
explained through the concept of conditioning. Conditioning appears to be
an important means of learning among human beings too, particularly in
childhood. Simple patterns of behaviour, learning of words and their
associated meanings, new emotional responses may all be satisfactorily
explained using the concept of conditioning.
Laws of Conditioning
From his
experiments of conditioning, Pavlov derived the following five laws.
1. Law of Causation :
According to this
law, a conditioned response is established by a series of contiguous pairings
of CS and UCS.
2. Law of
Experimental extinction :
If the CR is
elicited without reinforcement by the presentation of the UCS, then the CR gets
weakened and finally disappears.
3 .Law of
Generalization:
Once the C.R is
established, it may be elicited by any stimulus similar to the original CS.
4 .Law of
discrimination :
A selective CR can
be established by selective reinforcement.
5 .Law
of higher order conditioning:
The pairing of a
neutral stimulus with a UCS results not only in its becoming a conditioned
stimulus for the response but also in its becoming a reinforcing stimulus in
its own right.
Concept of
‘Reinforcement’
Any stimulus is a reinforce if it increases the probability of
occurrence of a particular desired response. For example, in Pavlov’s
experiment, food was presented immediately after the dog heard the bell sound
and started salivating. Here to increase the occurrence of the conditioned
response viz. salivating on hearing the bell sound, food was presented as
a reinforce.
Thus
‘reinforcement’ could be defined as the phenomenon in which a desired response
when emitted is strengthened by presenting a reinforce and thereby increasing the
frequency of occurrence of that particular response.
Educational
Implications:
1. Classical Conditioning is used in language learning by associating
words with pictures
or meanings.
2. It can be used to develop favourable attitude towards learning,
teachers, subjects
and the school.
3. Developing good habits in children such as cleanliness, respect for
elders, punctuality, etc., through the use of conditioning.
4. Breaking of bad habits and elimination of conditioned fear, through the
use of reconditioning process.
Thorndikes
Connectionism or Trial and Error
Learning :
Thorndike propagated the theory with the help of his experiments
performed on chickens, rats and cats. Pierre Flooure (1794-1857) had
proposed that conclusions drawn from animal experimentation should be equally
applicable to man. This proposition started the chain of experimentation
in the field of learning with animals. Thorndike selected chickens, rats
and cats for experimentation. He placed them under different learning
situations and studied them carefully. With the help of these
experiments, he tried to evolve certain laws and propagated his theory of
connectionism or trial and error learning. It is interesting to study the
type of experiments he performed with these animals. For illustration, below we
narrate one of his experiment.
He put a hungry cat in a puzzle box. There was only one door for
exit which could be opened by correctly manipulating a latch. A fish was
placed outside the box. The smell of the fish worked as a strong motive
for the hungry cat to come out of the box. As a result, he cat made every
possible effort to come out of the box.
The situation is described by Thorndike (1911) himself as – “It tries to
squeeze through any opening and claws at everything it reaches”. In this
way, it made a number of random movements. In one of the random
movements, by chance the latch was manipulated. The cat came out and got
its reward responses. In due course, the cat was able to open the door
without any error or in other words, learned the way of opening the door.
Thorndike named the learning of his experimental cat as “Trial and Error
Learning”. He maintained that learning is nothing but the stamping in of
the correct responses and stamping out of the incorrect responses though trial
and error. In trying for the correct solution, the cat made so many vain
attempts. It committed errors and errors before getting success. On
subsequent trials, it tried to avoid the erroneous ways and repeat the correct
ways of manipulating the latch.
Thorndike called it “Learning by selecting and connecting” as it
provides an opportunity for the selection of the proper responses and connect
or associate them with adequate stimuli. In this reference, Thorndike has
written – “Learning is connecting. The mind is man’s connection system”
As a result, learning is caused by the formation of connection in the
nervous system between stimuli and responses. There is a definite
association between sense impression and impulses to action. This
association can be known as a bond or connection. Since it is these bonds
or connection, which become strengthened or weakened in the making and breaking
of habits, Thorndike’s system is sometimes called “bond psychology” or
simply “connectionism”. Thorndike propounded the following laws of learning on
the basis of his theory :
The Law of Readiness
This law is indicative of the learner’s state to participate in the
learning process. Readiness, according to Thorndike, is preparation for action.
It is very essential for learning. If a child is ready to learn he
learns more quickly, effectively and with greater satisfaction than if he is
not ready to learn. It warns us not to make the child learn till he is
ready and also not to miss any opportunity of providing learning experience if
the child is already prepared to learn. The right movements
concerning the learning situation and the learner’s state of mind should be
very well recognized and maximum use of this knowledge should be made by the
teacher. He should also attempt to motivate his students by arousing
their attention, interest and curiosity.
The Law of Effect
In simple words, it means that learning takes place properly when it
results in satisfaction and the learner derives pleasure out of it. In
the situation when the child meets failure or is dissatisfied, the progress on
the path of learning is blocked. All the pleasant experiences have a
lasting influence and are remembered for a long time, while the unpleasant ones
are soon forgotten. Therefore the satisfaction or dissatisfaction,
pleasure or displeasure obtained as a result of some learning ensure the degree
of effectiveness of that learning.
The Law of Exercise
The law of exercise
has two sub-parts – law of use and law of disuse which may be defined as
Law of Use
When a modifiable
connection is made between a situation and response that connection’s strength
is, other things being equal, increased.
Law of Disuse
When a modifiable
connection is not made between a situation and response, during a length of
time, that connection’s strength is decreased.
Thus, law of use
refers to the strengthening of connection with practice while the law of disuse
refers to the weakening of connection or forgetting when the practice is
discontinued. In brief, it can be said that the law of exercise as a
whole emphasizes the need of repetition, practice and drill work in the process
of learning.
Educational Implications
of Thorndike’s Theory
Thorndike’s theory of trial and error has enough educational
significance. It tries to explain the process of learning carefully on
the basis of actual experiments performed. Not only the animals but human
learning also, to a great extent, follow the path of trial and
error. A child hile confronted with a mathematical problem tries
many possibilities of is solution before he arrives at the correct one.
Even the discoveries and inventions in the various fields of knowledge are the
results of the trial and error process.
As far as
Thorndike’ laws of learning are concerned, it goes without saying that
Thorndike has done a valuable service to the field of learning and teaching by
providing these laws. These laws imply the following things in general:
1. In the process of teaching and learning, the main task of the teacher is
to see what things he wants his students to remember or forget.
After this, he must try to strengthen the bonds or connections between the
stimuli and responses of those things, which are to be remembered, through
repetition, drill and reward. For forgetting, the connections should be
weakened through disuse and annoying results.
2. The child must be made ready to learn. His interest, attitude and mental
preparation is essential for the smooth sailing in the teaching learning
process.
3. It is also emphasized that past experiences and learning give an
adequate base for new Learning. Therefore, the teacher should try to make use
of the previous knowledge and experiences of the students.
4. The child should be encouraged to do his work independently. He must try
the various solutions of the problem before arriving at a correct one.
But every care should be taken to see that he does not waste his time and
energy.
In short,
Thorndike’s theory and laws of learning have contributed a lot to the
educational theory and practice. It has made learning purposeful and
goal-directed and has brought motivation in the forefront. It has also
given impetus to the work of practice, drill and repetition and realized the
psychological importance of rewards and praise in the process of teaching and
learning.
SKINNER’S
EXPERIMENTS REGARDING OPERANT CONDITIONING
B.F. Skinner
conducted a series of experiments with animals. For his experiments with
rats, he designed a special apparatus known as Skinner’s Box. It was a
much modified form of the puzzle box used by Thorndike for his experiments with
cats. The darkened soundproof box mainly consists of a grid floor, a
system of light or sound produced at the time of delivering a pallet of food in
the food cup, a lever and a food cup. It is arranged such that when a rat
(hungry or thirsty) presses the lever, the feeder mechanism is activated, a
light or a special sound is produced and a small pellet of food (or small drops
of water) is released into the food cup. To record the observations of
the experiment, the lever is connected with a recording system that produces a
graphical tracing of the lever pressings against the length of time the rat is
in the box
Skinner, in one of his initial experiments, placed a hungry rat in the
above described box. In this experiment pressing the bar in a certain way
by the rat could result in the production of a click sound and emergence of a
food pellet. The click sound acted as a cue or signal indicating to the
rat that if it responded by going to the food cup, it would be rewarded.
The rat was rewarded for each proper pressing of the lever. The lever
press response having been rewarded, the rat repeated it and when it was
rewarded again, it further increased the probability of the repetition of the
lever press response and so it continued. In this way, ultimately the rat
learned the art of pressing the lever as desired by the experimenter.
In his experiments with pigeons, Skinner made use of another specific
apparatus called the ‘Pigeon’s box’. In this experiment if the pigeon pecked at
a lighted plastic key mounted on the wall at head high, it was consequently
rewarded with grain.
With the help of such Experiments, Skinner put forward his theory of
operant conditioning for learning not only the simple responses like press in
the lever but also for learning the most difficult and complex series of
responses.
Mechanism of Operant Conditioning:
Operant conditioning as emphasized earlier is correlated with operant
behaviour. An operant is a set of acts that constitutes an organism’s
doing something. Hence, the process in operant conditioning may start
with the responses as they occur naturally or at random. In case they do
not occur naturally, then attempts may be made for shaping them into existence.
The important thing
in the mechanism of operant conditioning is the emission of a desired response
and its proper management through suitable reinforcement. Here, the
organism is to respond in such a way so as to produce the reinforcing
stimulus. The subsequent reinforcement gradually conditions the organism
to emit the desired response and thus learn the desired act.
Implications of the
Theory of Operant Conditioning :
Theory of operant
conditioning has revolutionized the field of training or learning by bringing
forward the following practical ideas and implications.
1. A response or a behaviour is not necessarily dependent upon a specific
known stimulus. It is more correct to consider that a behaviour or response is
dependent upon its consequences. Therefore, for training an organism to
learn a particular behaviour or response, he may be initiated to respond in
such a way so as to produce the reinforcing stimulus. His behaviour should be
rewarded and in turn, he should again act in such a way that he is rewarded and
so on.
2. Operant conditioning lays stress on the importance of schedules in the
process of reinforcement of beahviour. Therefore, in trying to train or learn
behaviour, great care is to be taken for the proper planning of the schedules
of reinforcement.
3. This theory advocates the avoidance of punishment for unlearning the
undesirable behaviour and for shaping the desirable behaviour. Punishment
proves ineffective in the long run. It appears that punishment simply
suppresses behaviour and when the threat of punishment is removed, behaviour
returns to its original level. Therefore, operant conditioning experiments suggested
rewarding the appropriate behaviour and ignoring the inappropriate behaviour
for its gradual extinction.
4. In its most effective application, theory of operant conditioning has
contributed a lot towards the development of teaching machines and programmed
learning.
2.FIELD THEORIES
Kohlers’s Insight
Theory
The learning theory named as “Learning by Insight” is the contribution
of Gestalt Psychologists, Gestalt Psychology began with the work of German
Psychologists who were studying the nature of perception. Wertheimer is
generally considered to be the Gestalt Psychology’s founding father.
Wertheimer, Kohler, Koffka and Lewin-all four of these men, originally German,
eventually settled in America-are the leaders of what is historically Gestalt
Psychology.
“Gestalt” is a German noun for which there is no English word equivalent
so the term was carried over in English Psychological literature. The
nearest English translation of Gestalt is ‘configuration’ or more simply ‘an
organized whole’ in contrast to be collection or parts. Gestalt
psychologists consider the process of learning as a gestalt-an organized
whole. A thing cannot be understood by the study of its constituent parts
but only by the study of it as a totality-is a basic idea behind this theory.
Gestalt Psychology used the term ‘insight’ to describe the perception of
the whole situation by the learner and of his intelligence in responding to the
proper relationships. Kohler, first of all, used this term (insight) to
describe the learning of his apes. Kohler conducted many experiments on
chimpanzees and brought out a book. ‘Mentality of Apes’ in 1925 which was
the result of his experiments, conducted during the period 1913-17 on the
canary Island. These experiments, show learning by insight. Some of
them are given below :
§ In one experiment, Kohler put a chimpanzee Sultan inside a cage and a
banana was hung from the roof of the cage. A box was placed inside the
cage. The chimpanzee tried to reach the banana by jumping but could not
succeed. Suddenly, he got an idea and used the stick as a jumping
platform by placing it just below the hanging banana.
§ In other experiment, Kohler made this problem more difficult. Now it
required two or three boxes to reach the banana. Moreover, the placing of
one box over the other required different specific arrangements.
§ In a more complicated experiment, banana was placed outside the cage of
the chimpanzee. Two sticks, one larger than the other, were placed inside
the cage. One was hollow at one end so that the other stick could be
thrust into it to form a longer stick. The banana was so kept that it
could not be picked up by one of the sticks. The chimpanzee first tried these
sticks one after the other but failed. Suddenly, he got a bright
idea. The animal joined the two sticks together and reached the
banana. In these experiments, Kohler used many different
chimpanzees. Sultan, who was the most intelligent of Kohler’s
chimpanzees, could solve all the problems. Other chimpanzees could solve
the problems only when they saw Sultan solving them.
With such
experiments, Kohler concluded that in the solution of problems, his apes did
not resort to blind trial and error mechanism. They solved their problems
intelligently. Kohler used the term ‘Insight’ to describe the learning of
his apes.
Insight involves
the following criteria
§ The situation as a whole is perceived by the learner.
§ The learner tries to see and judge the relationship between various
factors involved in the situation.
§ As a result, the learner is helped in the sudden grasping of the
solution of the problem.
Therefore, learning
according to them is re-structuring the field of perception through
insight. As a whole, insight depends upon the following factors.
§ Experience
§ Intelligence
§ Learning Situation
§ Initial Efforts
§ Repetition and Generalization
Educational
Implication of the Theory of Insightful Learning :
This theory brings
the following important facts into limelight :
1. The whole is greater than the parts and, therefore, the situation should
be viewed as a whole.
2. The use of blind fumbling and mechanical trial and error should be
minimized. The learner should try to see relevant relationships and act
intelligently.
3. The purpose or motive plays the central role in the learning process.
Based on the appeal
of this theory, teachers are required to pay attention to the following
aspects.
1. Subject matter (learning material) should be presented in Gestalt form.
While teaching the topic, parts of a flowering plant or flower, it should not
be started by presenting the different parts. Initially the plant or flower as
a whole should be presented before them and later on the parts should be
emphasized.
2. The greater contribution of the insight theory of learning is that it
has made learning an intelligent task requiring mental abilities instead of
blind fumbling and automatic responses to specific stimuli.
Gestalt Theory of
Insight Learning
Meaning of Gestalt :
‘Gestalt’ the German word means ‘Whole’,
‘pattern’ or ‘configuration’. According to Gestalt psychology, the whole
is always greater than the sum of the parts. The parts do not have any
meaning outside the whole. For example when we analyses the following
figure in terms of its components, it may appear to consist of a straight line,
two dots two arcs and a triangle.
But immediately
becomes meaningful by reminding us the picture of a human head. We
organize the individual parts so as to form a meaningful pattern and the
‘whole’ conveys a new meaning. In this process our past experience play a
leading role. To understand or learn a task means to perceive the whole with
the structure of its components and their functional relationship. Thus
learning, according to Gestalt psychologists, involves the reorganization of
experience into systematic and meaningful pattern.
Insight Learning
and its Educational Implications
Insight learning stresses learning as a cognitive process.
‘Insight’ is the mental process by which new and revealing combinations of data
are suddenly perceived. Insight is restructuring the perceptual field resulting
in the immediate comprehension of previously unseen relationship. The
greatest contribution of Gestalt psychology to education is the emphasis on
meaning in education. The world of classroom in which the student finds
himself is not a body of independent stimuli. There is organization and
meaning and the child reacts with understanding. History is not a set of dates
and events. It is a logical sweep of events through space and time.
Similarly mathematics is not just a collection of unconnected formulae.
There is organization and meaning in it. In the working of a problem,
each step is related with the next. Thus education is to equip an
individual with meaningful subjective experiences so as to perceive the
situations with more clarity.
Factors that
influence ‘Insight’
1. Intelligence (capacity) : The more intelligent the organism is, the
greater will be the insight
2. Experience : Past experience helps insightful solution
3. Presentation of the problem.
4. Initial effort : Initial efforts also develop insight. It may be called
trial and error effort made by the learner.
Steps involved in
insightful learning
The following are the stages involved in insightful learning
1. Preparation (sensing or survey of the problem)
2. Incubation (period of apparently no action)
3. Insight or illumination (the solution appears as a flash)
4. Evaluation (Verifying utility of the solution)
Pavlov’s
STIMULUS RESPONSE
THEORIES
* Pavlov’s
Classical Conditioning Theory
(Dog Experiment)
* Thorndike’s Laws
of Learning
(Puzzle box
Experiment)
* Skinner’s Operant
Conditioning
(Skinnner Box
Experiment)
2. FIELD
THEORIES
* Kholer’s
Insight Learning Theory
(Chimpanzee
Experiment)
* Gestalt Theory
of Insight Learning
(Configuration or
pattern)
Pavlov’s Classical
Conditioning Theory
Russian
physiologist Ian Pavlov, during his experimental work on dog’s digestive
process, accidentally noticed the secretion of saliva in the dog on the sight
of food or hearing the footsteps of the caretaker.
Conditioning can be
defined as “a process in which a neutral stimulus which is not associated with
any specific natural response, on pairing with a natural stimulus, acquires all
the characteristics of natural stimulus” For example, if food is
presented, saliva flows. Food is the ‘natural stimulus’ (or unconditioned
stimulus-U.C.S.) that can elicit the ‘natural response’ (or unconditioned
response-U.C.R.) ‘salivating’. The sound of a bell which is a neutral
stimulus, not associated with any specific response originally, when paired
with food a number of times, acquires the characteristics of food and starts
eliciting the response of salivation, even when presented alone. Now we
refer the bell sound as ‘conditioned stimulus’ (C.S.) and ‘salivation’ as ‘conditioned
response’(C.R.). ‘The classical conditioning’ of Pavlov is also called
‘stimulus substitution’ because we substitute a neutral stimulus, through the
process of ‘contiguity’ (occurrence of two events in quick succession).
Symbolic representation of classical conditioning is given below:
STAGE I (Before
conditioning)
UCS :
UCR
(Food) (natural
stimulus) (Salivation)
CS : No specific or
(Ringing of the
Bell) unique
response
STAGE II (Process
of conditioning)
CS +
UCS : CR
(Bell sound + Food) (Salivation)
STAGE III (After
conditioning)
CS : CR
(Bell
sound)
(Salivation)
Conditioning
appears to be the simplest type of learning and the basis for further and more
complex types of learning. Most of the animal learning’s could be
explained through the concept of conditioning. Conditioning appears to be
an important means of learning among human beings too, particularly in
childhood. Simple patterns of behaviour, learning of words and their
associated meanings, new emotional responses may all be satisfactorily
explained using the concept of conditioning.
Laws of Conditioning:
From his
experiments of conditioning, Pavlov derived the following five laws.
1. Law of Causation :
According to this
law, a conditioned response is established by a series of contiguous pairings
of CS and UCS.
2.Law of
Experimental extinction :
If the CR is
elicited without reinforcement by the presentation of the UCS, then the CR gets
weakened and finally disappears.
3 .Law of
Generalization:
Once the C.R is
established, it may be elicited by any stimulus similar to the original CS.
4 .Law of discrimination
:
A selective CR can
be established by selective reinforcement.
5 .Law of
higher order conditioning:
The pairing of a
neutral stimulus with a UCS results not only in its becoming a conditioned
stimulus for the response but also in its becoming a reinforcing stimulus in
its own right.
Concept of
‘Reinforcement’
Any stimulus is a reinforce if it increases the probability of
occurrence of a particular desired response. For example, in Pavlov’s
experiment, food was presented immediately after the dog heard the bell sound
and started salivating. Here to increase the occurrence of the conditioned
response viz. salivating on hearing the bell sound, food was presented as
a reinforce.
Thus
‘reinforcement’ could be defined as the phenomenon in which a desired response
when emitted is strengthened by presenting a reinforce and thereby increasing the
frequency of occurrence of that particular response.
Educational
Implications :
1. Classical Conditioning is used in language learning by associating
words with pictures
or meanings.
2. It can be used to develop favourable attitude towards learning,
teachers, subjects
and the school.
3. Developing good habits in children such as cleanliness, respect for
elders, punctuality, etc., through the use of conditioning.
4. Breaking of bad habits and elimination of conditioned fear, through the
use of reconditioning process.
Skinner’s
·
Image by
Andreas1 / Wikimedia Commons (CC BY-SA 3.0)
·
Updated December 15, 2015.
·
A Skinner box, also known
an an operant conditioning chamber, is an enclosed apparatus that contains a
bar or key that an animal can press or manipulate in order to obtain food or
water as a type of reinforcement.
·
Developed by B. F. Skinner, this box
also had a device that recorded each response provided by the animal as well as
the unique schedule of
reinforcement that the animal was assigned.
·
Skinner was inspired to create his operant
conditioning chamber as an extension of the puzzle boxes that Edward Thorndikefamously
used in his research on the law of effect. Skinner
himself did not refer to his device as a Skinner box, instead preferring the
term “lever box.”
·
How Is a Skinner Box Used?
·
The design of Skinner boxes can vary depending
upon the type of animal and the experimental variables. The box is
a chamber that includes at least one lever, bar, or key that the animal can
manipulate.
·
When the lever is pressed, food, water, or some
other type of reinforcement might be dispensed.
Thorndike’s
Thorndikes
Connectionism or Trial and Error
Learning :
Thorndike
propagated the theory with the help of his experiments performed on chickens,
rats and cats. Pierre Flooure (1794-1857) had proposed that conclusions
drawn from animal experimentation should be equally applicable to man.
This proposition started the chain of experimentation in the field of learning
with animals. Thorndike selected chickens, rats and cats for
experimentation. He placed them under different learning situations and
studied them carefully. With the help of these experiments, he tried to
evolve certain laws and propagated his theory of connectionism or trial and
error learning. It is interesting to study the type of experiments he
performed with these animals. For illustration, below we narrate one of his
experiment.
He put a hungry cat in a puzzle box. There was only one door for
exit which could be opened by correctly manipulating a latch. A fish was
placed outside the box. The smell of the fish worked as a strong motive
for the hungry cat to come out of the box. As a result, he cat made every
possible effort to come out of the box.
The situation is described by Thorndike (1911) himself as – “It tries to
squeeze through any opening and claws at everything it reaches”. In this
way, it made a number of random movements. In one of the random
movements, by chance the latch was manipulated. The cat came out and got
its reward responses. In due course, the cat was able to open the door
without any error or in other words, learned the way of opening the door.
Thorndike named the learning of his experimental cat as “Trial and Error
Learning”. He maintained that learning is nothing but the stamping in of
the correct responses and stamping out of the incorrect responses though trial
and error. In trying for the correct solution, the cat made so many vain
attempts. It committed errors and errors before getting success. On
subsequent trials, it tried to avoid the erroneous ways and repeat the correct
ways of manipulating the latch.
Thorndike called it “Learning by selecting and connecting” as it
provides an opportunity for the selection of the proper responses and connect
or associate them with adequate stimuli. In this reference, Thorndike has
written – “Learning is connecting. The mind is man’s connection system”
As a result, learning
is caused by the formation of connection in the nervous system between stimuli
and responses. There is a definite association between sense impression
and impulses to action. This association can be known as a bond or
connection. Since it is these bonds or connection, which become
strengthened or weakened in the making and breaking of habits,
Thorndike’s system is sometimes called “bond psychology” or simply
“connectionism”. Thorndike propounded the following laws of learning on the
basis of his theory :
The Law of
Readiness
This law is indicative of the learner’s state to participate in the
learning process. Readiness, according to Thorndike, is preparation for action.
It is very essential for learning. If a child is ready to learn he
learns more quickly, effectively and with greater satisfaction than if he is
not ready to learn. It warns us not to make the child learn till he is
ready and also not to miss any opportunity of providing learning experience if
the child is already prepared to learn. The right movements
concerning the learning situation and the learner’s state of mind should be
very well recognized and maximum use of this knowledge should be made by the
teacher. He should also attempt to motivate his students by arousing
their attention, interest and curiosity.
The Law of Effect
In simple words, it means that learning takes place properly when it
results in satisfaction and the learner derives pleasure out of it. In
the situation when the child meets failure or is dissatisfied, the progress on
the path of learning is blocked. All the pleasant experiences have a
lasting influence and are remembered for a long time, while the unpleasant ones
are soon forgotten. Therefore the satisfaction or dissatisfaction, pleasure
or displeasure obtained as a result of some learning ensure the degree of
effectiveness of that learning.
The Law of Exercise
The law of exercise
has two sub-parts – law of use and law of disuse which may be defined as
Law of Use
When a modifiable
connection is made between a situation and response that connection’s strength
is, other things being equal, increased.
Law of Disuse
When a modifiable
connection is not made between a situation and response, during a length of
time, that connection’s strength is decreased.
Thus, law of use
refers to the strengthening of connection with practice while the law of disuse
refers to the weakening of connection or forgetting when the practice is
discontinued. In brief, it can be said that the law of exercise as a
whole emphasizes the need of repetition, practice and drill work in the process
of learning.
Educational
Implications of Thorndike’s Theory
Thorndike’s theory of trial and error has enough educational
significance. It tries to explain the process of learning carefully on
the basis of actual experiments performed. Not only the animals but human
learning also, to a great extent, follow the path of trial and
error. A child hile confronted with a mathematical problem tries
many possibilities of is solution before he arrives at the correct one.
Even the discoveries and inventions in the various fields of knowledge are the
results of the trial and error process.
As far as
Thorndike’ laws of learning are concerned, it goes without saying that
Thorndike has done a valuable service to the field of learning and teaching by
providing these laws. These laws imply the following things in general:
1. In the process of teaching and learning, the main task of the teacher is
to see what things he wants his students to remember or forget.
After this, he must try to strengthen the bonds or connections between the
stimuli and responses of those things, which are to be remembered, through
repetition, drill and reward. For forgetting, the connections should be
weakened through disuse and annoying results.
2. The child must be made ready to learn. His interest, attitude and mental
preparation is essential for the smooth sailing in the teaching learning
process.
3. It is also emphasized that past experiences and learning give an
adequate base for new Learning. Therefore, the teacher should try to make use
of the previous knowledge and experiences of the students.
4. The child should be encouraged to do his work independently. He must try
the various solutions of the problem before arriving at a correct one.
But every care should be taken to see that he does not waste his time and
energy.
In short,
Thorndike’s theory and laws of learning have contributed a lot to the
educational theory and practice. It has made learning purposeful and
goal-directed and has brought motivation in the forefront. It has also
given impetus to the work of practice, drill and repetition and realized the
psychological importance of rewards and praise in the process of teaching and
learning.
2. Self-Test
Learning - Choose the Correct Answer
1. The permanent
changes that occurred in one’s behaviour through experience’ is called
a.Intelligence b. Personality c. Learning
d. Transfer of learning
2.Stimulus-Response
refers to
a.Learning
b.
Behaviour
c. Motivation
d. Thinking
3.What persists in
our mind for a long time?
a.Learning through
senses
b. Learnt through reading
c.Learnt through
hearing
d. Learnt through seeing
4. Kohler’s
learning theory is
a. Trial and Error
learning b. Classical conditioning
c. Instrumental
conditioning d.
Insightful learning
5. Pavlov’s
learning theory is
a.
Stimulus-Response learning b. Classical conditioning
c. Operant
Conditioning
d. Insightful learning
6. Operant
conditioning learning theory was propounded by
a. Skinner
b. Pavlov c.
Thurstone d. Torrence
7. The theory of
learning by insight was propounded by
a. Kohler
b. Adler
c. Klausmeir
d. Miller
8. Classical
conditioning learning theory was propounded by
a. Maslow
b. Pavlov c.
Skinner d. Bandura
9. The learning
based on reasoning is
a. Trial and Error
learning
b. Classical Conditioning
c. Operant
Conditioning d.
Learning by Insight
10. Which learning
does not require intelligence and practice?
a. Trial and Error
learning
b. Classical Conditioning
c. Operant
Conditioning d.
Learning by Insight
11. Gestalt means
a. Insight
b. Whole
c. Part
d. System
12. For attraction
and attention towards learning, the teacher adopts
a. Audio-visual
aids b. Memory aids c. Teaching aids d. Learning
aids
13. Self-learning
through sensory experience was introduced by
a. Guthrie
b. Montessorie c.
Elizabeth Hurlock d. Piaget
14. “You can bring
the horse to the water but you can not force him to drink” This proverb refers
to
a. Law of readiness
b. Law of effect c. Operant
conditioning d. Insight learning
15 Thorndike’s
basic laws of learning are
a. Two
b. Three
c. Four
d. Five
16. Who said
– “Learning is the modification of behaviour through experience and
training.
a. Gates
b. Boaz c. Hobbs
d. Ross
17.The last stage
in memory is
a. Retention
b.
Recognition
c. Recall d. Learning
18. Theory of
mental discipline of transfer of learning was formulated by
a. William James
b. Judd c. Thorndike
d. Bagley
19. Theory of
identical elements of transfer of learning was formulated by
a. Thorndike
b. Judd
c. Bagley
d. William James
20. The rate of
learning is uniform on a learning graph. It shows
a. Positive
acceleration b. Negative acceleration
c. Zero
acceleration d.
Uniform acceleration
21. The rate of
learning is fast in the beginning and become slow latter due to training. It
shows
a. Positive
acceleration b. Negative acceleration
c. Zero
acceleration
d. Uniform acceleration
22. When
there is no progress in the training, the learning process becomes
constant. This means
a. Initial stage
b. Middle stage c. Final
stage d. Plateau stage
23. Forgetting
curve experiment was done by
a. Bartlett
b. Ebbinghaus
c. Wallace d. Gagne
24. Theory of
interference or inhibition is related to
a. Thinking
b. Memory
c. Forgetting d. Learning
25. The part of
memory which retains what we have learnt until we need them is
a. Learning
b. Retention
c. Recognition d. Recall